In failure-to-warn medical negligence cases, the risk of an operation not succeeding (no improvement) and the risk of a detrimental outcome (worsening) are distinct matters that must be separately considered in the causation analysis. A patient's prior consent to surgery following inadequate warnings, trust in the surgeon, and earlier warnings by other doctors are all relevant to whether the patient would have proceeded if adequately warned. Evidence of a patient's reaction to prior warnings by another doctor is probative not because it puts the patient on notice, but because it shows how the patient responds to such information.
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