Mere presence at the scene of a crime, even when considered in the light of background circumstances including prior involvement in related events, is insufficient to establish aiding and abetting murder where there is no evidence of any word, gesture or behaviour expressing or attempting to express encouragement to the principal offenders. Where injuries are inflicted by multiple assailants at substantially the same time, a later injury does not break the chain of causation from earlier injuries that remain operating and substantial causes of death. R v Heyes is no longer good law; the availability of a lesser included crime does not preclude reliance on false denials to infer consciousness of guilt.
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